Keywords
Nutritional Assessment
Micronutrients deficiency
Malnutrition
Dietary Intake Assessment
Physical Activity Assessment
Micronutrients deficiency
Malnutrition
Dietary Intake Assessment
Physical Activity Assessment
Abstract
Accurate nutritional assessment based on dietary intake, physical activity, genetic makeup, and metabolites is required to prevent from developing and/or to treat people suffering from malnutrition as well as other nutrition related health issues. Nutritional screening ought to be considered as an essential part of clinical assessment for every patient on admission to healthcare setups, as well as on change in clinical conditions. Therefore, a detailed nutritional assessment must be performed every time nutritional imbalances are observed or suspected. In this review we have explored different techniques used for nutritional and physical activity assessment. Dietary Intake (DI) assessment is a multidimensional and complex process. Traditionally, dietary intake is assessed through self-report techniques, but due to limitations like biases, random errors, misestimations, and nutrient databases-linked errors, questions arise about the adequacy of self-reporting dietary intake procedures. Despite the limitations in assessing dietary intake (DI) and physical activity (PA), new methods and improved technologies such as biomarkers analysis, blood tests, genetic assessments, metabolomic analysis, DEXA (Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging), and CT (computed tomography) scanning procedures have made much progress in the improvement of these measures. Genes also plays a crucial role in dietary intake and physical activity. Similarly, metabolites are also involved in different nutritional pathways. This is why integrating knowledge about the genetic and metabolic markers along with the latest technologies for dietary intake (DI) and physical activity (PA) assessment holds the key for accurately assessing one’s nutritional status and prevent malnutrition and its related complications.
References
[1] O’Gorman A, Gibbons H,Brennan L. Metabolomics in the identification of biomarkers of dietary intake. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2013;4:e201301004. https://doi.org/10.5936/ csbj.201301004
[2] McClung HL, Ptomey LT, Shook RP, Aggarwal A, Gorczyca AM, Sazonov ES, Becofsky K, Weiss R,Das SK. Dietary intake and physical activity assessment: current tools, techniques, and technologies for use in adult populations. Am J Prev Med 2018;55:e93-e104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.06.011
[3] Cereda E, Veronese N, Caccialanza R. The final word on nutritional screening and assessment in older persons. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2018;21:24-29. https://doi.org/10.1097/ MCO.0000000000000431
[4] Dellière S, Cynober L. Is transthyretin a good marker of nutritional status? Clin Nutr 2017;36:364-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2016.06.004
[5] Chen M, Sun Q, Giovannucci E, Mozaffarian D, Manson JE, Willett WC,Hu FB. Dairy consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis. BMC Med 2014;12:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0215-1
Park Y, Dodd KW, Kipnis V, Thompson FE, Potischman N, Schoeller DA, Baer DJ, Midthune D, Troiano RP,Bowles H. Comparison of self-reported dietary intakes from the Automated Self-Administered 24-h recall, 4-d food records, and foodfrequency questionnaires against recovery biomarkers. Am J Clin Nutr 2018;107:80-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqx002
[7] Archer E. The use of implausible data without caveats is misleading. Am J Clin Nutr 2017;106:949-50. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.150870
[8] Reber E, Gomes F, Vasiloglou MF, Schuetz P,Stanga Z. Nutritional risk screening and assessment. J Clin Med 2019;8:1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8071065
[9] Lardiés-Sánchez B, Sanz-Paris A, Boj-Carceller D,Cruz-Jentoft A. Systematic review: prevalence of sarcopenia in ageing people using bioelectrical impedance analysis to assess muscle mass. Eur Geriatr Med 2016;7:256-61. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40200-017-0302-x
[10] Dhurandhar NV, Schoeller D, Brown AW, Heymsfield SB, Thomas D, Sørensen TI, Speakman JR, Jeansonne M,Allison DB. Energy balance measurement: when something is not better than nothing. Int J Obes 2015;39:1109-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.199
[11] Schatzkin A, Subar AF, Moore S, Park Y, Potischman N, Thompson FE, Leitzmann M, Hollenbeck A, Morrissey KG,Kipnis V. Observational epidemiologic studies of nutrition and cancer: the next generation (with better observation). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:1026-32. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-1129
[12] McClung HL, Champagne CM, Allen HR, McGraw SM, Young AJ, Montain SJ,Crombie AP. Digital food photography technology improves efficiency and feasibility of dietary intake assessments in large populations eating ad libitum in collective dining facilities. Appetite 2017;116:389-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.025
[13] Boushey C, Spoden M, Zhu F, Delp E,Kerr D. New mobile methods for dietary assessment: review of image-assisted and image-based dietary assessment methods. Proc Nutr Soc 2017;76:283-94. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665116002913
[14] National Cancer Institute. Automated Self-Administered 24-Hour (ASA24) Dietary Assessment Tool. https://epi.grants. cancer.gov/asa24/. Accessed on: June 26, 2022.
[15] Kristal AR, Kolar AS, Fisher JL, Plascak JJ, Stumbo PJ, Weiss R,Paskett ED. Evaluation of web-based, self-administered, graphical food frequency questionnaire. J Acad Nutr Diet 2014;114: 613-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.11.017
[16] Kondrup J, Rasmussen HH, Hamberg O, Stanga Z; Group AahEW. Nutritional risk screening (NRS 2002): a new method based on an analysis of controlled clinical trials. Clin Nutr 2003;22:321-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0261-5614(02)00214-5
[17] Cereda E. Mini nutritional assessment. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2012;15:29-41. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32834d7647
[18] Martin CK, Correa JB, Han H, Allen HR, Rood JC, Champagne CM, Gunturk BK,Bray GA. Validity of the Remote Food Photography Method (RFPM) for estimating energy and nutrient intake in near real‐time. Obesity 2012;20: 891-99. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.344
[19] Ptomey LT, Willis EA, Honas JJ, Mayo MS, Washburn RA, Herrmann SD, Sullivan DK,Donnelly JE. Validity of energy intake estimated by digital photography plus recall in overweight and obese young adults. J Acad Nutr Diet 2015;115:1392-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2015.05.006
[20] Zhu F, Bosch M, Khanna N, Boushey CJ,Delp EJ. Multiple hypotheses image segmentation and classification with application to dietary assessment. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 2014;19:377-88. https://doi.org/10.1109/JBHI.2014.2304925
[21] Dong Y, Hoover A, Scisco J, Muth E. A new method for measuring meal intake in humans via automated wrist motion tracking. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2012;37:205-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-012-9194-1
[22] Päßler S, Wolff M,Fischer W-J. Food intake monitoring: an acoustical approach to automated food intake activity detection and classification of consumed food. Physiol Meas 2012;33:1073. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/33/6/1073
[23] Fontana JM, Higgins JA, Schuckers SC, Bellisle F, Pan Z, Melanson EL, Neuman MR, Sazonov E. Energy intake estimation from counts of chews and swallows. Appetite 2015;85:14-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.11.003
[24] Tseng P, Napier B, Garbarini L, Kaplan DL,Omenetto FG. Functional, RF‐trilayer sensors for tooth‐mounted, wireless monitoring of the oral cavity and food consumption. Adv Mater 2018;30:1703257. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201703257
[25] Esper DH. Utilization of nutrition‐focused physical assessment in identifying micronutrient deficiencies. Nutr Clin Pract 2015;30:194-202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533615573054
[26] Wakahara T, Shiraki M, Murase K, Fukushima H, Matsuura K, Fukao A, Kinoshita S, Kaifuku N, Arakawa N, Tamura T. Nutritional screening with Subjective Global Assessment predicts hospital stay in patients with digestive diseases. Nutrition 2007;23:634-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2007.06.005
[27] White JV, Guenter P, Jensen G, Malone A, Schofield M; Group AMW, Force AMT, of Directors AB. Consensus statement of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics/American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: characteristics recommended for the identification and documentation of adult malnutrition (undernutrition). J Acad Nutr Diet 2012;112:730-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.012
[28] Saltzman E, Philip Karl J. Nutrient deficiencies after gastric bypass surgery. Annu Rev Nutr 2013;33:183-203. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071812-161225
[29] Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press 2006. https://doi.org/10.17226/11537
[30] Montgomery SC, Streit SM, Beebe ML, Maxwell IV PJ. Micronutrient needs of the elderly. Nutr Clin Pract 2014;29:43544. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533614537684
[31] Litchford MD. Counteracting the trajectory of frailty and sarcopenia in older adults. Nutr Clin Pract 2014;29:428-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533614536231
[32] Pavasini R, Guralnik J, Brown JC, Di Bari M, Cesari M, Landi F, Vaes B, Legrand D, Verghese J, Wang C. Short physical performance battery and all-cause mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med 2016;14:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-016-0763-7
[33] Pilotto A, Cella A, Pilotto A, Daragjati J, Veronese N, Musacchio C, Mello AM, Logroscino G, Padovani A, Prete C. Three decades of comprehensive geriatric assessment: evidence coming from different healthcare settings and specific clinical conditions. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2017;18:192.e1-92.e11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2016.11.004
[34] Correia MITD. Nutrition screening vs nutrition assessment: what’s the difference? Nutr Clin Pract 2018;33:62-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533617719669
[35] Franceschi C, Garagnani P, Vitale G, Capri M, Salvioli S. Inflammaging and ‘Garb-aging’. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2017;28:199-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2016.09.005
[36] Anker SD, Morley JE, von Haehling S. Welcome to the ICD‐10 code for sarcopenia. Wiley Online Library, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12147
[37] Chanet A, Salles J, Guillet C, Giraudet C, Berry A, Patrac V, Domingues-Faria C, Tagliaferri C, Bouton K,Bertrand-Michel J. Vitamin D supplementation restores the blunted muscle protein synthesis response in deficient old rats through an impact on ectopic fat deposition. J Nutr Biochem 2017;46:30-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.02.024
[38] Schoeller DA, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. eds. Advances in the Assessment of Dietary Intake. First Edition. CRC Press 2017. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315152288
[39] Vanhees L, Lefevre J, Philippaerts R, Martens M, Huygens W, Troosters T, Beunen G. How to assess physical activity? How to assess physical fitness? Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2005;12:10214. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.hjr.0000161551.73095.9c
[40] Fletcher GF, Balady G, Blair SN, Blumenthal J, Caspersen C, Chaitman B, Epstein S, Froelicher ESS, Froelicher VF, Pina IL. Statement on exercise: benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans: a statement for health professionals by the Committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation 1996;94:857-62. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.94.4.857
[41] DRAFT – for McKenzie TL. The use of direct observation to assess physical activity. In G. Welk, ed. Physical activity assessments for health-related research. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics 2002, pp. 179-195.
[42] Schoeller DA, Ravussin E, Schutz Y, Acheson KJ, Baertschi P, Jequier E. Energy expenditure by doubly labeled water: validation in humans and proposed calculation. American Am J Physiol 1986;250:R823-R30. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1986.250.5.R823
[43] Black A, Cole T. Within-and between-subject variation in energy expenditure measured by the doubly-labelled water technique: implications for validating reported dietary energy intake. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:386-94. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600970
[44] Starling R. Use of doubly labeled water and indirect calorimetry to assess physical activity. Physical activity assessments for health-related research 2002:197-209.
[45] Crouter SE, Schneider PL, Karabulut M, Bassett Jr DR. Validity of ten electronic pedometers for measuring steps, distance, and kcals. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:S283. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000078932.61440.A2
[46] Santos P, Guerra S, Ribeiro J, Duarte J, Mota J. Age and genderrelated physical activity. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2003;43:85-9.
[47] Beunen GP, Lefevre J, Philippaerts RM, Delvaux K, Thomis M, Claessens AL, Vanreusel B, Lysens R, Eynde BV, Renson R. Adolescent correlates of adult physical activity: a 26-year follow-up. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000145536.87255.3a
[48] Wareham NJ, Hennings SJ, Prentice AM, Day NE. Feasibility of heart-rate monitoring to estimate total level and pattern of energy expenditure in a population-based epidemiological study: the Ely Young Cohort Feasibility Study 1994–5. Br J Nutr 1997;78:889-900. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn19970207
[49] Davidson L, McNeill G, Haggarty P, Smith JS, Franklin MF. Free-living energy expenditure of adult men assessed by continuous heart-rate monitoring and doubly-labelled water. Br J Nutr 1997;78:695-708. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn19970188
[50] Brage S, Brage N, Franks PW, Ekelund U, Wong M-Y, Andersen LB, Froberg K, Wareham NJ. Branched equation modeling of simultaneous accelerometry and heart rate monitoring improves estimate of directly measured physical activity energy expenditure. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2004;96:343-51. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00703.2003
[51] Sallis JF. Self-report measures of children’s physical activity. J Sch Health 1991;61:215-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.1991.tb06017.x
[52] Durante R, Ainsworth BE. The recall of physical activity: using a cognitive model of the question-answering process. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199610000-00012
[53] Philippaerts R, Westerterp K, Lefevre J. Doubly labeled water validation of three physical activity questionnaires. Int J Sports Med 1999;20:284-89. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-971132
[54] Baecke JA, Burema J,Frijters JE. A short questionnaire for the measurement of habitual physical activity in epidemiological studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;36:936-42. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/36.5.936
[55] Reiff GG, Montoye HJ, Remington RD, Napier JA, Metzner HL, Epstein FH. Assessment of physical activity by questionnaire and interview. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1967;7:135-42.
[56] Kohl HW, Blair SN, PAFFENBARGER Jr RS, Macera CA, Kronenfeld JJ. A mail survey of physical activity habits as related to measured physical fitness. Am J Epidemiol 1988;127:122839. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114915
[57] Racette SB, Schoeller DA, Kushner RF. Comparison of heart rate and physical activity recall with doubly labeled water in obese women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995;27:126-33.
[58] Shephard RJ. Limits to the measurement of habitual physical activity by questionnaires. Br J Sports Med 2003;37:197-206. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.37.3.197
[59] Ridley K, Dollman J, Olds T. Development and validation of a computer delivered physical activity questionnaire (CDPAQ) for children. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2001;13:35-46.
[60] Zivkovic AM, German JB. Metabolomics for assessment of nutritional status. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2009;12:501. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32832f1916
[61] Akbaraly T, Würtz P, Singh-Manoux A, Shipley MJ, Haapakoski R, Lehto M, Desrumaux C, Kähönen M, Lehtimäki T, Mikkilä V. Association of circulating metabolites with healthy diet and risk of cardiovascular disease: analysis of two cohort studies. Sci Rep 2018;8:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26441-1
[62] Floegel A, Von Ruesten A, Drogan D, Schulze M, Prehn C, Adamski J, Pischon T, Boeing H. Variation of serum metabolites related to habitual diet: a targeted metabolomic approach in EPIC-Potsdam. Eur J Clin Nutr 2013;67:1100-08. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2013.147
[63] Zheng Y, Yu B, Alexander D, Steffen LM, Boerwinkle E. Human metabolome associates with dietary intake habits among African Americans in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Epidemiol 2014;179:1424-33. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwu073
[64] Guertin KA, Moore SC, Sampson JN, Huang W-Y, Xiao Q, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Sinha R, Cross AJ. Metabolomics in nutritional epidemiology: identifying metabolites associated with diet and quantifying their potential to uncover diet-disease relations in populations. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100:208-17. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.078758
[65] Picó C, Serra F, Rodríguez AM, Keijer J, Palou A. Biomarkers of nutrition and health: New tools for new approaches. Nutrients 2019;11:1092. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051092
[66] Enattah NS, Sahi T, Savilahti E, Terwilliger JD, Peltonen L, Järvelä I. Identification of a variant associated with adulttype hypolactasia. Nat Genet 2002;30:233-37. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng826
[67] Almon R, Patterson E, Nilsson T, Engfeldt P, Sjöström M. Body fat and dairy product intake in lactase persistent and non-persistent children and adolescents. Food Nutr Res 2010;54:5141. https://doi.org/10.3402/fnr.v54i0.5141
[68] Dashti HS, Shea MK, Smith CE, Tanaka T, Hruby A, Richardson K, Wang TJ, Nalls MA, Guo X, Liu Y. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies for circulating phylloquinone concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100:1462-69. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.093146
[69] Day KJ, Adamski MM, Dordevic AL, Murgia C. Genetic variations as modifying factors to dietary zinc requirements-a systematic review. Nutrients 2017;9:148. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020148
[70] Vettori A, Paolacci S, Maltese PE, Herbst KL, Cestari M, Michelini S, Michelini S, Samaja M, Bertelli M. Genetic Determinants of the Effects of Training on Muscle and Adipose Tissue Homeostasis in Obesity Associated with Lymphedema. Lymphat Res Biol 2021;19:322-33. https://doi.org/10.1089/ lrb.2020.0057
[71] Camilleri G, Kiani AK, Herbst KL, Kaftalli J, Bernini A, Dhuli K, Manara E, Bonetti G, Stuppia L, Paolacci S, Dautaj A, Bertelli M. Genetics of fat deposition Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2021;25:14-22. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202112_27329
[72] Dhuli K, Ceccarini MR, Precone V, Maltese PE, Bonetti G, Paolacci S, Dautaj A, Guerri G, Marceddu G, Beccari T, Michelini S, Bertelli M. Improvement of quality of life by intake of hydroxytyrosol in patients with lymphedema and association of lymphedema genes with obesity Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2021;25:33-42. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202112_27331
[73] Vettori A, Pompucci G, Paolini B, Del Ciondolo I, Bressan S, Dundar M, Kenanoğlu S, Unfer V, Bertelli M. Geneob Project Genetic background, nutrition and obesity: a review Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2019;23:1751-61. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_201902_17137
[74] Naureen Z, Perrone M, Paolacci S, Maltese PE, Dhuli K, Kurti D, Dautaj A, Miotto R, Casadei A, Fioretti B. Genetic test for the personalization of sport training. Acta Biomed 2020;91. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i13-S.10593
[75] Pacheco C, da Silva Felipe SM, de Carvalho Soares MMD, Alves JO, Soares PM, Leal-Cardoso JH, Loureiro ACC, Ferraz ASM, de Carvalho DP, Ceccatto VM. A compendium of physical exercise-related human genes: an’omic scale analysis. Biol Sport 2018;35:3. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2018.70746
[76] Vaughan KT, Weber FE, Ried T, Ward DC, Reinach FC,Fischman DA. Human myosin-binding protein H (MyBP-H): complete primary sequence, genomic organization, and chromospinal localization. Genomics 1993;16:34-40. https://doi.org/10.1006/geno.1993.1136
[77] Abbot EL, McCormack JG, Reynet C, Hassall DG, Buchan KW,Yeaman SJ. Diverging regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform gene expression in cultured human muscle cells. FEBS J 2005;272:3004-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2005.04713.x
[78] Puthucheary Z, Skipworth JR, Rawal J, Loosemore M, Van Someren K, Montgomery HE. The ACE gene and human performance. Sports Med 2011;41:433-48. https://doi.org/10.2165/11588720-000000000-00000
[79] Zarebska A, Jastrzebski Z, Cieszczyk P, Leonska-Duniec A, Kotarska K, Kaczmarczyk M, Sawczuk M, MaciejewskaKarlowska A. The Pro12Ala polymorphism of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma gene modifies the association of physical activity and body mass changes in Polish women. PPAR Res 2014;2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/373782
[2] McClung HL, Ptomey LT, Shook RP, Aggarwal A, Gorczyca AM, Sazonov ES, Becofsky K, Weiss R,Das SK. Dietary intake and physical activity assessment: current tools, techniques, and technologies for use in adult populations. Am J Prev Med 2018;55:e93-e104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.06.011
[3] Cereda E, Veronese N, Caccialanza R. The final word on nutritional screening and assessment in older persons. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2018;21:24-29. https://doi.org/10.1097/ MCO.0000000000000431
[4] Dellière S, Cynober L. Is transthyretin a good marker of nutritional status? Clin Nutr 2017;36:364-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2016.06.004
[5] Chen M, Sun Q, Giovannucci E, Mozaffarian D, Manson JE, Willett WC,Hu FB. Dairy consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis. BMC Med 2014;12:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0215-1
Park Y, Dodd KW, Kipnis V, Thompson FE, Potischman N, Schoeller DA, Baer DJ, Midthune D, Troiano RP,Bowles H. Comparison of self-reported dietary intakes from the Automated Self-Administered 24-h recall, 4-d food records, and foodfrequency questionnaires against recovery biomarkers. Am J Clin Nutr 2018;107:80-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqx002
[7] Archer E. The use of implausible data without caveats is misleading. Am J Clin Nutr 2017;106:949-50. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.150870
[8] Reber E, Gomes F, Vasiloglou MF, Schuetz P,Stanga Z. Nutritional risk screening and assessment. J Clin Med 2019;8:1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8071065
[9] Lardiés-Sánchez B, Sanz-Paris A, Boj-Carceller D,Cruz-Jentoft A. Systematic review: prevalence of sarcopenia in ageing people using bioelectrical impedance analysis to assess muscle mass. Eur Geriatr Med 2016;7:256-61. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40200-017-0302-x
[10] Dhurandhar NV, Schoeller D, Brown AW, Heymsfield SB, Thomas D, Sørensen TI, Speakman JR, Jeansonne M,Allison DB. Energy balance measurement: when something is not better than nothing. Int J Obes 2015;39:1109-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.199
[11] Schatzkin A, Subar AF, Moore S, Park Y, Potischman N, Thompson FE, Leitzmann M, Hollenbeck A, Morrissey KG,Kipnis V. Observational epidemiologic studies of nutrition and cancer: the next generation (with better observation). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:1026-32. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-1129
[12] McClung HL, Champagne CM, Allen HR, McGraw SM, Young AJ, Montain SJ,Crombie AP. Digital food photography technology improves efficiency and feasibility of dietary intake assessments in large populations eating ad libitum in collective dining facilities. Appetite 2017;116:389-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.025
[13] Boushey C, Spoden M, Zhu F, Delp E,Kerr D. New mobile methods for dietary assessment: review of image-assisted and image-based dietary assessment methods. Proc Nutr Soc 2017;76:283-94. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665116002913
[14] National Cancer Institute. Automated Self-Administered 24-Hour (ASA24) Dietary Assessment Tool. https://epi.grants. cancer.gov/asa24/. Accessed on: June 26, 2022.
[15] Kristal AR, Kolar AS, Fisher JL, Plascak JJ, Stumbo PJ, Weiss R,Paskett ED. Evaluation of web-based, self-administered, graphical food frequency questionnaire. J Acad Nutr Diet 2014;114: 613-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.11.017
[16] Kondrup J, Rasmussen HH, Hamberg O, Stanga Z; Group AahEW. Nutritional risk screening (NRS 2002): a new method based on an analysis of controlled clinical trials. Clin Nutr 2003;22:321-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0261-5614(02)00214-5
[17] Cereda E. Mini nutritional assessment. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2012;15:29-41. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32834d7647
[18] Martin CK, Correa JB, Han H, Allen HR, Rood JC, Champagne CM, Gunturk BK,Bray GA. Validity of the Remote Food Photography Method (RFPM) for estimating energy and nutrient intake in near real‐time. Obesity 2012;20: 891-99. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.344
[19] Ptomey LT, Willis EA, Honas JJ, Mayo MS, Washburn RA, Herrmann SD, Sullivan DK,Donnelly JE. Validity of energy intake estimated by digital photography plus recall in overweight and obese young adults. J Acad Nutr Diet 2015;115:1392-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2015.05.006
[20] Zhu F, Bosch M, Khanna N, Boushey CJ,Delp EJ. Multiple hypotheses image segmentation and classification with application to dietary assessment. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 2014;19:377-88. https://doi.org/10.1109/JBHI.2014.2304925
[21] Dong Y, Hoover A, Scisco J, Muth E. A new method for measuring meal intake in humans via automated wrist motion tracking. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2012;37:205-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-012-9194-1
[22] Päßler S, Wolff M,Fischer W-J. Food intake monitoring: an acoustical approach to automated food intake activity detection and classification of consumed food. Physiol Meas 2012;33:1073. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/33/6/1073
[23] Fontana JM, Higgins JA, Schuckers SC, Bellisle F, Pan Z, Melanson EL, Neuman MR, Sazonov E. Energy intake estimation from counts of chews and swallows. Appetite 2015;85:14-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.11.003
[24] Tseng P, Napier B, Garbarini L, Kaplan DL,Omenetto FG. Functional, RF‐trilayer sensors for tooth‐mounted, wireless monitoring of the oral cavity and food consumption. Adv Mater 2018;30:1703257. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201703257
[25] Esper DH. Utilization of nutrition‐focused physical assessment in identifying micronutrient deficiencies. Nutr Clin Pract 2015;30:194-202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533615573054
[26] Wakahara T, Shiraki M, Murase K, Fukushima H, Matsuura K, Fukao A, Kinoshita S, Kaifuku N, Arakawa N, Tamura T. Nutritional screening with Subjective Global Assessment predicts hospital stay in patients with digestive diseases. Nutrition 2007;23:634-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2007.06.005
[27] White JV, Guenter P, Jensen G, Malone A, Schofield M; Group AMW, Force AMT, of Directors AB. Consensus statement of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics/American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: characteristics recommended for the identification and documentation of adult malnutrition (undernutrition). J Acad Nutr Diet 2012;112:730-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.012
[28] Saltzman E, Philip Karl J. Nutrient deficiencies after gastric bypass surgery. Annu Rev Nutr 2013;33:183-203. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071812-161225
[29] Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press 2006. https://doi.org/10.17226/11537
[30] Montgomery SC, Streit SM, Beebe ML, Maxwell IV PJ. Micronutrient needs of the elderly. Nutr Clin Pract 2014;29:43544. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533614537684
[31] Litchford MD. Counteracting the trajectory of frailty and sarcopenia in older adults. Nutr Clin Pract 2014;29:428-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533614536231
[32] Pavasini R, Guralnik J, Brown JC, Di Bari M, Cesari M, Landi F, Vaes B, Legrand D, Verghese J, Wang C. Short physical performance battery and all-cause mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med 2016;14:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-016-0763-7
[33] Pilotto A, Cella A, Pilotto A, Daragjati J, Veronese N, Musacchio C, Mello AM, Logroscino G, Padovani A, Prete C. Three decades of comprehensive geriatric assessment: evidence coming from different healthcare settings and specific clinical conditions. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2017;18:192.e1-92.e11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2016.11.004
[34] Correia MITD. Nutrition screening vs nutrition assessment: what’s the difference? Nutr Clin Pract 2018;33:62-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533617719669
[35] Franceschi C, Garagnani P, Vitale G, Capri M, Salvioli S. Inflammaging and ‘Garb-aging’. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2017;28:199-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2016.09.005
[36] Anker SD, Morley JE, von Haehling S. Welcome to the ICD‐10 code for sarcopenia. Wiley Online Library, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12147
[37] Chanet A, Salles J, Guillet C, Giraudet C, Berry A, Patrac V, Domingues-Faria C, Tagliaferri C, Bouton K,Bertrand-Michel J. Vitamin D supplementation restores the blunted muscle protein synthesis response in deficient old rats through an impact on ectopic fat deposition. J Nutr Biochem 2017;46:30-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.02.024
[38] Schoeller DA, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. eds. Advances in the Assessment of Dietary Intake. First Edition. CRC Press 2017. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315152288
[39] Vanhees L, Lefevre J, Philippaerts R, Martens M, Huygens W, Troosters T, Beunen G. How to assess physical activity? How to assess physical fitness? Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2005;12:10214. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.hjr.0000161551.73095.9c
[40] Fletcher GF, Balady G, Blair SN, Blumenthal J, Caspersen C, Chaitman B, Epstein S, Froelicher ESS, Froelicher VF, Pina IL. Statement on exercise: benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans: a statement for health professionals by the Committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation 1996;94:857-62. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.94.4.857
[41] DRAFT – for McKenzie TL. The use of direct observation to assess physical activity. In G. Welk, ed. Physical activity assessments for health-related research. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics 2002, pp. 179-195.
[42] Schoeller DA, Ravussin E, Schutz Y, Acheson KJ, Baertschi P, Jequier E. Energy expenditure by doubly labeled water: validation in humans and proposed calculation. American Am J Physiol 1986;250:R823-R30. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1986.250.5.R823
[43] Black A, Cole T. Within-and between-subject variation in energy expenditure measured by the doubly-labelled water technique: implications for validating reported dietary energy intake. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:386-94. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600970
[44] Starling R. Use of doubly labeled water and indirect calorimetry to assess physical activity. Physical activity assessments for health-related research 2002:197-209.
[45] Crouter SE, Schneider PL, Karabulut M, Bassett Jr DR. Validity of ten electronic pedometers for measuring steps, distance, and kcals. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:S283. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000078932.61440.A2
[46] Santos P, Guerra S, Ribeiro J, Duarte J, Mota J. Age and genderrelated physical activity. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2003;43:85-9.
[47] Beunen GP, Lefevre J, Philippaerts RM, Delvaux K, Thomis M, Claessens AL, Vanreusel B, Lysens R, Eynde BV, Renson R. Adolescent correlates of adult physical activity: a 26-year follow-up. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000145536.87255.3a
[48] Wareham NJ, Hennings SJ, Prentice AM, Day NE. Feasibility of heart-rate monitoring to estimate total level and pattern of energy expenditure in a population-based epidemiological study: the Ely Young Cohort Feasibility Study 1994–5. Br J Nutr 1997;78:889-900. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn19970207
[49] Davidson L, McNeill G, Haggarty P, Smith JS, Franklin MF. Free-living energy expenditure of adult men assessed by continuous heart-rate monitoring and doubly-labelled water. Br J Nutr 1997;78:695-708. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn19970188
[50] Brage S, Brage N, Franks PW, Ekelund U, Wong M-Y, Andersen LB, Froberg K, Wareham NJ. Branched equation modeling of simultaneous accelerometry and heart rate monitoring improves estimate of directly measured physical activity energy expenditure. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2004;96:343-51. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00703.2003
[51] Sallis JF. Self-report measures of children’s physical activity. J Sch Health 1991;61:215-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.1991.tb06017.x
[52] Durante R, Ainsworth BE. The recall of physical activity: using a cognitive model of the question-answering process. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199610000-00012
[53] Philippaerts R, Westerterp K, Lefevre J. Doubly labeled water validation of three physical activity questionnaires. Int J Sports Med 1999;20:284-89. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-971132
[54] Baecke JA, Burema J,Frijters JE. A short questionnaire for the measurement of habitual physical activity in epidemiological studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;36:936-42. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/36.5.936
[55] Reiff GG, Montoye HJ, Remington RD, Napier JA, Metzner HL, Epstein FH. Assessment of physical activity by questionnaire and interview. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1967;7:135-42.
[56] Kohl HW, Blair SN, PAFFENBARGER Jr RS, Macera CA, Kronenfeld JJ. A mail survey of physical activity habits as related to measured physical fitness. Am J Epidemiol 1988;127:122839. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114915
[57] Racette SB, Schoeller DA, Kushner RF. Comparison of heart rate and physical activity recall with doubly labeled water in obese women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995;27:126-33.
[58] Shephard RJ. Limits to the measurement of habitual physical activity by questionnaires. Br J Sports Med 2003;37:197-206. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.37.3.197
[59] Ridley K, Dollman J, Olds T. Development and validation of a computer delivered physical activity questionnaire (CDPAQ) for children. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2001;13:35-46.
[60] Zivkovic AM, German JB. Metabolomics for assessment of nutritional status. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2009;12:501. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32832f1916
[61] Akbaraly T, Würtz P, Singh-Manoux A, Shipley MJ, Haapakoski R, Lehto M, Desrumaux C, Kähönen M, Lehtimäki T, Mikkilä V. Association of circulating metabolites with healthy diet and risk of cardiovascular disease: analysis of two cohort studies. Sci Rep 2018;8:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26441-1
[62] Floegel A, Von Ruesten A, Drogan D, Schulze M, Prehn C, Adamski J, Pischon T, Boeing H. Variation of serum metabolites related to habitual diet: a targeted metabolomic approach in EPIC-Potsdam. Eur J Clin Nutr 2013;67:1100-08. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2013.147
[63] Zheng Y, Yu B, Alexander D, Steffen LM, Boerwinkle E. Human metabolome associates with dietary intake habits among African Americans in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Epidemiol 2014;179:1424-33. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwu073
[64] Guertin KA, Moore SC, Sampson JN, Huang W-Y, Xiao Q, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Sinha R, Cross AJ. Metabolomics in nutritional epidemiology: identifying metabolites associated with diet and quantifying their potential to uncover diet-disease relations in populations. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100:208-17. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.078758
[65] Picó C, Serra F, Rodríguez AM, Keijer J, Palou A. Biomarkers of nutrition and health: New tools for new approaches. Nutrients 2019;11:1092. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051092
[66] Enattah NS, Sahi T, Savilahti E, Terwilliger JD, Peltonen L, Järvelä I. Identification of a variant associated with adulttype hypolactasia. Nat Genet 2002;30:233-37. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng826
[67] Almon R, Patterson E, Nilsson T, Engfeldt P, Sjöström M. Body fat and dairy product intake in lactase persistent and non-persistent children and adolescents. Food Nutr Res 2010;54:5141. https://doi.org/10.3402/fnr.v54i0.5141
[68] Dashti HS, Shea MK, Smith CE, Tanaka T, Hruby A, Richardson K, Wang TJ, Nalls MA, Guo X, Liu Y. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies for circulating phylloquinone concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100:1462-69. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.093146
[69] Day KJ, Adamski MM, Dordevic AL, Murgia C. Genetic variations as modifying factors to dietary zinc requirements-a systematic review. Nutrients 2017;9:148. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020148
[70] Vettori A, Paolacci S, Maltese PE, Herbst KL, Cestari M, Michelini S, Michelini S, Samaja M, Bertelli M. Genetic Determinants of the Effects of Training on Muscle and Adipose Tissue Homeostasis in Obesity Associated with Lymphedema. Lymphat Res Biol 2021;19:322-33. https://doi.org/10.1089/ lrb.2020.0057
[71] Camilleri G, Kiani AK, Herbst KL, Kaftalli J, Bernini A, Dhuli K, Manara E, Bonetti G, Stuppia L, Paolacci S, Dautaj A, Bertelli M. Genetics of fat deposition Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2021;25:14-22. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202112_27329
[72] Dhuli K, Ceccarini MR, Precone V, Maltese PE, Bonetti G, Paolacci S, Dautaj A, Guerri G, Marceddu G, Beccari T, Michelini S, Bertelli M. Improvement of quality of life by intake of hydroxytyrosol in patients with lymphedema and association of lymphedema genes with obesity Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2021;25:33-42. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202112_27331
[73] Vettori A, Pompucci G, Paolini B, Del Ciondolo I, Bressan S, Dundar M, Kenanoğlu S, Unfer V, Bertelli M. Geneob Project Genetic background, nutrition and obesity: a review Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2019;23:1751-61. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_201902_17137
[74] Naureen Z, Perrone M, Paolacci S, Maltese PE, Dhuli K, Kurti D, Dautaj A, Miotto R, Casadei A, Fioretti B. Genetic test for the personalization of sport training. Acta Biomed 2020;91. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i13-S.10593
[75] Pacheco C, da Silva Felipe SM, de Carvalho Soares MMD, Alves JO, Soares PM, Leal-Cardoso JH, Loureiro ACC, Ferraz ASM, de Carvalho DP, Ceccatto VM. A compendium of physical exercise-related human genes: an’omic scale analysis. Biol Sport 2018;35:3. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2018.70746
[76] Vaughan KT, Weber FE, Ried T, Ward DC, Reinach FC,Fischman DA. Human myosin-binding protein H (MyBP-H): complete primary sequence, genomic organization, and chromospinal localization. Genomics 1993;16:34-40. https://doi.org/10.1006/geno.1993.1136
[77] Abbot EL, McCormack JG, Reynet C, Hassall DG, Buchan KW,Yeaman SJ. Diverging regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform gene expression in cultured human muscle cells. FEBS J 2005;272:3004-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2005.04713.x
[78] Puthucheary Z, Skipworth JR, Rawal J, Loosemore M, Van Someren K, Montgomery HE. The ACE gene and human performance. Sports Med 2011;41:433-48. https://doi.org/10.2165/11588720-000000000-00000
[79] Zarebska A, Jastrzebski Z, Cieszczyk P, Leonska-Duniec A, Kotarska K, Kaczmarczyk M, Sawczuk M, MaciejewskaKarlowska A. The Pro12Ala polymorphism of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma gene modifies the association of physical activity and body mass changes in Polish women. PPAR Res 2014;2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/373782