Keywords
Nutrient inadequacies
Nutritional biomarkers
Micronutrient deficiencies
Vitamins
Dietary supplements
Nutritional biomarkers
Micronutrient deficiencies
Vitamins
Dietary supplements
Abstract
Nutrition is the source of energy that is required to carry out all the processes of human body. A balanced diet is a combination of both macro- and micronutrients. “Nutritional inadequacy” involves an intake of nutrients that is lower than the estimated average requirement, whereas “nutritional deficiency” consists of severely reduced levels of one or more nutrients, making the body unable to normally perform its functions and thus leading to an increased risk of several diseases like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. Malnutrition could be caused by environmental factors, like food scarcity, as well as disease conditions, like anorexia nervosa, fasting, swallowing inability, persistent vomiting, impaired digestion, intestinal malabsorption, or other chronic diseases. Nutritional biomarkers – like serum or plasma levels of nutrients such as folate, vitamin C, B vitamins, vitamin D, selenium, copper, zinc – could be used for the evaluation of nutrient intake and dietary exposure. Macronutrients deficiencies could cause kwashiorkor, marasmus, ketosis, growth retardation, wound healing, and increased infection susceptibility, whereas micronutrient – like iron, folate, zinc, iodine, and vitamin A – deficiencies lead to intellectual impairment, poor growth, perinatal complications, degenerative diseases associated with aging and higher morbidity and mortality. Preventing macro- and micronutrient deficiency is crucial and this could be achieved through supplementation and food-based approaches
References
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[12] Bhaskaram P. Immunobiology of mild micronutrient deficiencies. Br J Nutr 2001;85:S75-S80. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn2000297
[13] Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O’Keefe JH, Miller JB. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:341-54. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn.81.2.341
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[15] Bruins MJ, Bird JK, Aebischer CP, Eggersdorfer M. Considerations for secondary prevention of nutritional deficiencies in high-risk groups in high-income countries. Nutrients 2018;10:47. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10010047
[16] Reilly W, Ilich J. Prescription Drugs and Nutrient Depletion: How Much Is Known? Adv Nutr 2017;8:23. https://doi.org/org/10.1093/advances/8.1.23
[17] Stover PJ. Influence of human genetic variation on nutritional requirements. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:436S-442S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/83.2.436S
[18] Archer E, Hand GA, Blair SN. Validity of US nutritional surveillance: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey caloric energy intake data, 1971-2010. PLoS One 2013;8:e76632. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076632
[19] Kuhnle GG. Nutritional biomarkers for objective dietary assessment. J Sci Food Agric 2012;92:1145-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5631
[20] Erdman JW, Macdonald IA, Zeisel SH. Present knowledge in nutrition. 10th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
[21] Weininger J. Nutritional disease. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/ science/nutritional-disease. Accessed on: June 26, 2022.
[22] Westspot C. Nutrition in the first 1,000 days: State of the world’s mothers 2012. Westport, CT: Save the Children 2012.
[23] de Onís M, Monteiro C, Akré J, Glugston G. The worldwide magnitude of protein-energy malnutrition: an overview from the WHO Global Database on Child Growth. Bull World Health Organ 1993;71:703-12.
[24] Higdon J. Essential fatty acids. Linus Pauling Institute–Oregon State University, 2005. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/othernutrients/essential-fatty-acids. Accessed June 26, 2022.
[25] Smit EN, Muskiet FA, Boersma ER. The possible role of essential fatty acids in the pathophysiology of malnutrition: a review. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2004;71:24150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2004.03.019
[26] Lepage G, Levy E, Ronco N, Smith L, Galéano N, Roy CC. Direct transesterification of plasma fatty acids for the diagnosis of essential fatty acid deficiency in cystic fibrosis. Lipid Res 1989;30:1483-90.
[27] Schacky VC. Omega-3 index and cardiovascular health. Nutrients 2014;6:799-814. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6020799
[28] Kar S, Wong M, Rogozinska E, Thangaratinam S. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids in prevention of early preterm delivery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized studies. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2016;198:40-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2015.11.033
[29] Siscovick DS, Barringer TA, Fretts AM, Wu JHY, Alice H Lichtenstein AH, Costello RB, Kris-Etherton PM, Jacobson TA, Engler MB, Alger HM, Appel LJ, Mozaffarian D. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (fish oil) supplementation and the prevention of clinical cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2017;135:e867-e884. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000482
[30] Senftleber NK, Nielsen SM, Andersen JR, Bliddal H, Tarp S, Lauritzen L, Furst DE, Suarez-Almazor ME, Anne Lyddiatt A, Robin Christensen R. Marine oil supplements for arthritis pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Nutrients 2017;9:42. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9010042
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[32] Horwitz A, Kennedy ET, Howson CP. Prevention of micronutrient deficiencies: tools for policymakers and public health workers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press 1998. https://doi.org/10.17226/5962
[33] Suskind DL. Nutritional deficiencies during normal growth. Pediatric Clinics 2009;56:1035-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2009.07.004
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