Keywords
Disinfection systems, Iran, Parasitic and fungal contamination, Physical and chemical characteristics, Swimming pool
Abstract
Introduction: Considering to the existence of both parasitic and fungal pathogens in the indoor public swimming pools and non-utilization of suitable filtration and disinfection systems in these places, this research aimed to determine the relationship between the indoor public swimming pools and possible pollution with parasitic and fungal agents, as well as physical and chemical characteristics of these pools and compare the results with national standards.
Methods: In this study, 11 active indoor swimming pools of Zahedan city were sampled, using plastic pumps techniques, at the middle of winter to the late summer season. A total of 88 water samples (eight water samples from each pool) were examined to determine the residual chlorine, contamination with parasitic and fungal agents, using culture media and slide culture techniques. Results were analyzed with SPSS software (V16) and, Microsoft Excel (V2010).
Results: The findings revealed parasitic fungal contamination with Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus, etc. and the physicochemical factors comply with the minimum standards had which indicates the need for continuous monitoring and control of water filtration and disinfection of water is swimming.
Conclusion: The results show reasonable derangement of physicochemical and microbial factors of the evaluated pools. Efforts shall be made by the concerned authorities to provide health education to users, quality water at the pools and to maintain the safety and quality of the water through proper and adequate chlorination.
References
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[25] Mavridou A, Pappa O, Papatzitze O, Dioli C, Kefala AM, Drossos P, Beloukas A. Exotic Tourist Destinations and Transmission of Infections by Swimming Pools and Hot Springs—A. Recreational Water Illnesses: 2019;1 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122730
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[29] Sorvillo FJ, Fujioka K, Nahlen B, Tormey MP, Kebabjian R, Mascola L. Swimming-associated cryptosporidiosis. American Journal of Public Health 1992; 82 (5):742-744 https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.82.5.742
[30] Wood M, Simmonds L, MacAdam J, Hassard F, Jarvis P, Chalmers RM. Role of filtration in managing the risk from Cryptosporidium in commercial swimming pools–a review. Journal of Water and Health 2019 https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.270
[31] Lika M, Dako A, Meçe O. The microbial pollution in pools and diseases connected with them. Natura Montenegrina 2010; 9 (3):859-866
[32] Ekowati Y. Protection of public health from microbial and chemical hazards in swimming pool environments. CRC Press/Balkema 2019 https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429286261
[33] Raiesi O, Siavash M, Mohammadi F, Chabavizadeh J, Mahaki B, Maherolnaghsh M, Dehghan P. Frequency of cutaneous fungal infections and azole resistance of the isolates in patients with diabetes mellitus. Advanced biomedical research 2017; 6 doi: 10.4103/2277-9175.191003
[34] Maghazy S, Abdel-Mallek A, Bagy M. Fungi in two swimming pools in Assiut town, Egypt. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie 1989; 144 (3):213-216 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0232-4393(89)80107-6
[35] Kraus H, Tiefenbrunner F. Randomised investigations of some Tyrolean swimming pools for the presence of Trichomonas vaginalis and pathogenic fungi (author's transl). Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene Erste Abteilung Originale Reihe B: Hygiene, praventive Medizin 1975; 160 (3):286-291 https://europepmc.org/article/med/239503
[36] Shields JM, Gleim ER, Beach MJ. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis in swimming pools, Atlanta, Georgia. Emerging infectious diseases 2008; 14 (6):948 http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/14/6/948.htm
[2] Buck JD, Bubucis PM. Membrane filter procedure for enumeration of Candida albicans in natural waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 1978; 35 (2):237-242 https://aem.asm.org/content/35/2/237.short
[3] Murphy JL, Hlavsa MC, Carter BC, Miller C, Jothikumar N, Gerth TR, Beach MJ, Hill VR. Pool water quality and prevalence of microbes in filter backwash from metro-Atlanta swimming pools. Journal of water and health 2018; 16 (1):87-92 https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2017.150
[4] Rabler P. Water examination by membrane filter and MPN procedures. Am J Public Health 1954;44:379
[5] Ekowati Y, Ferrero G, Kennedy MD, de Roda Husman AM, Schets FM. Potential transmission pathways of clinically relevant fungi in indoor swimming pool facilities. International journal of hygiene and environmental health 2018; 221 (8):1107-1115 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.07.013
[6] Abbasnia A, Ghoochani M, Yousefi N, Nazmara S, Radfard M, Soleimani H, Yousefi M, Barmar S, Alimohammadi M. Prediction of human exposure and health risk assessment to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools and risk reduction strategy. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal 2018:1-18 https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1488582
[7] Bonadonna L, La Rosa G. A Review and Update on Waterborne Viral Diseases Associated with Swimming Pools. International journal of environmental research and public health 2019; 16 (2):166 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020166
[8] Efstratiou A, Ongerth JE, Karanis P. Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: Review of worldwide outbreaks-An update 2011–2016. Water Research 2017; 114:14-22 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.01.036
[9] Ekowati Y, van Diepeningen AD, Ferrero G, Kennedy MD, de Roda Husman AM, Schets FM. Clinically relevant fungi in water and on surfaces in an indoor swimming pool facility. International journal of hygiene and environmental health 2017; 220 (7):1152-1160 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.07.002
[10] Detandt M, Nolard N. Dermatophytes and Swimming Pools: Seasonal Fluctuations: Dermatophyten und Badeanstalten: Jahreszeitliche Schwankungen. Mycoses 1988; 31 (10):495-500 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.1988.tb04400.x
[11] Dindarloo K, SolaimaniAhmadi M, Zare S, Abdi H, Heidari M. Hygiene condition of Bandar Abbas swimming pools, 2003. Hormozgan Medical Journal 2005; 9 (1):41-46 http://hmj.hums.ac.ir/article-1-302-en.html
[12] American Public Health Association A. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American public health association Washington, DC 1995
[13] Adams VD. Water and wastewater examination manual. Routledge 2017
[14] Ounsaneha W, Kraisin P, Suksaroj TT, Suksaroj C, Rattanapan C. Health Risk Assessment from Haloacetic Acids Exposure in Indoor and Outdoor Swimming Pool Water. EnvironmentAsia 2017; 10 (2)
[15] Salvato JA, Nemerow NL, Agardy FJ. Environmental engineering. John Wiley & Sons 2003
[16] Dingman JD. Public Pool Disinfection: The effectiveness of ultraviolet light/hydrogen peroxide. Journal of Environmental Health 1990:341-343 https://www.jstor.org/stable/44539906
[17] Association APH, Association AWW. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American public health association 1989
[18] Federation WE, Association APH. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA): Washington, DC, USA 2005
[19] Nanbakhsh H, Diba K, Hazarti K. Study of fungal contamination of indoor public swimming pools. Iranian Journal of Public Health 2004:60-65
[20] Ondriska F, Mrva M, Lichvár M, Ziak P, Murgasová Z, Nohýnková E. First cases of Acanthamoeba keratitis in Slovakia. Annals of agricultural and environmental medicine: AAEM 2004; 11 (2):335-341 https://europepmc.org/article/med/15627346
[21] Rippon JW. Medical mycology; the pathogenic fungi and the pathogenic actinomycetes. Eastbourne, UK; WB Saunders Company 1982
[22] Sh S, Chadegani M Study of fungal contamination of Public swimming pools, Isfehan. Water &Wastewater 1998 (10):3-6
[23] Rafiei A, Amirrajab N. Fungal contamination of indoor public swimming pools, Ahwaz, South-west of Iran. Iranian journal of public health 2010; 39 (3):124 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3481636/
[24] Karimi A, Radfard M, Naghizadeh A, Biglari H, Alvani V, Mahdavi M, Mohammadzadeh A. Formation of disinfection by-products and fungal contamination data in public swimming pools: A case study in Gonabad, Iran. Data in brief 2019; 22:326-331 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2018.12.017
[25] Mavridou A, Pappa O, Papatzitze O, Dioli C, Kefala AM, Drossos P, Beloukas A. Exotic Tourist Destinations and Transmission of Infections by Swimming Pools and Hot Springs—A. Recreational Water Illnesses: 2019;1 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122730
[26] Raiesi O, Shabandoust H, Getso M, Raissi V, Rezaei AA. Candida auris: A New Emerging Fungal Monster. Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 2019; 14 (2)
http:// doi: 10.5812/archcid.70741
[27] Dallolio L, Belletti M, Agostini A, Teggi M, Bertelli M, Bergamini C, Chetti L, Leoni E. Hygienic surveillance in swimming pools: assessment of the water quality in Bologna facilities in the period 2010–2012. Microchemical Journal 2013; 110:624-628 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2013.07.013
[28] Bruns S, Peppler C. Hygienic quality of public natural swimming pools (NSP). Water Supply 2019; 19 (2):365-370 https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2018.076
[29] Sorvillo FJ, Fujioka K, Nahlen B, Tormey MP, Kebabjian R, Mascola L. Swimming-associated cryptosporidiosis. American Journal of Public Health 1992; 82 (5):742-744 https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.82.5.742
[30] Wood M, Simmonds L, MacAdam J, Hassard F, Jarvis P, Chalmers RM. Role of filtration in managing the risk from Cryptosporidium in commercial swimming pools–a review. Journal of Water and Health 2019 https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.270
[31] Lika M, Dako A, Meçe O. The microbial pollution in pools and diseases connected with them. Natura Montenegrina 2010; 9 (3):859-866
[32] Ekowati Y. Protection of public health from microbial and chemical hazards in swimming pool environments. CRC Press/Balkema 2019 https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429286261
[33] Raiesi O, Siavash M, Mohammadi F, Chabavizadeh J, Mahaki B, Maherolnaghsh M, Dehghan P. Frequency of cutaneous fungal infections and azole resistance of the isolates in patients with diabetes mellitus. Advanced biomedical research 2017; 6 doi: 10.4103/2277-9175.191003
[34] Maghazy S, Abdel-Mallek A, Bagy M. Fungi in two swimming pools in Assiut town, Egypt. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie 1989; 144 (3):213-216 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0232-4393(89)80107-6
[35] Kraus H, Tiefenbrunner F. Randomised investigations of some Tyrolean swimming pools for the presence of Trichomonas vaginalis and pathogenic fungi (author's transl). Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene Erste Abteilung Originale Reihe B: Hygiene, praventive Medizin 1975; 160 (3):286-291 https://europepmc.org/article/med/239503
[36] Shields JM, Gleim ER, Beach MJ. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis in swimming pools, Atlanta, Georgia. Emerging infectious diseases 2008; 14 (6):948 http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/14/6/948.htm